Northern Latium was home to the small tribe of Latin people and later it was called Ancient Latium. It was situated between Etruria and Campania. The river Tiber connected Latius with the midland and the Tyrrhenian sea was an area of a brisk trade between Carthage, Etruria and Greek. Everywhere in Latium there were traces of volcanic activity. The volcanic ash-particles were wonderful fertilizer and made the soil very rich and productive. Agriculture and cattle breeding were the main activities of the population in that region. Their domestic animals were bulls, sheep, hogs. Horses were also used but mainly for battles. The climate was very wet and there were a lot of marshes in that area. According to the history Protolatins (Latin ancestors) were the first settlers of Alban hills of Latium. These hills later became the unification centre of primitive Latin city-states (The Alban Federation known as Latin League – 7th century BC). Downstream the river Tiber there were another group of hills. They occupy very strategic position. Some of them had very steep slopes and were very easy to defend (Capitol, Palatine). People there was obtaining salt from the sea water and along the left bank of the river Tiber there was a road called “The Salt road” (Via Salaria).

THE HILLS AND THE GROWTH OF ROME

Palatine hill was the first of the main hills that was settled. The hill was surrounded by a lot of marshes and it was very easy to defend. The river Tiber was near, the Salt road was near so it is not difficult to understand the reasons it was settled first. So the first Palatine hill community was the Protolatin community (9-10 BC). At the end of 9th BC was founded the Esquiline hill Protosabines community which was very near the Palatine hill.
There were four phases of the growth of the city during its Kingdom period. The fist phase was called “Square Rome” (Roma Quadrata). According to the history so was named the first Palatine hill settlement by some Roman writers. The second phase was “The city of the seven hills” but relative to this period there were no clear evidence about what territory exactly was included in the city.

The third phase of the growth of the city was so called “The city of the four districts”. The four districts were as follows: Palatine hill, Caelian hill, Quirinal hill and Viminal hill. This way the city was expanded to include five main hills: Palatine hill, Esquiline hill, Caelian hill, Viminal hill and Quirinal hill. Obviously the other two hills – Capitoline hill and Aventine hill were not settled at that time or if they were, they were not included in the pomerium (the sacred body of the city of Rome) of the city. The last phase was so called “The city of Servius Tullius” (Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of Ancient Rome. He expanded the city to include the Capitoline hill). So the Capitoline hill was within the pomerium of the city. Aventine hill was the last of the main hills included.

Middle Ages – Partially independently, partially influenced by one another, in different European countries was popularized a ball game – kicking, carrying the ball, involving an unlimited number of players on opposing teams. In Italy this game was called “calcio” which means kick. In France this is a folklore game called “sul and shul”.

XIV century – The game becomes very popular in England becoming a trouble to the king (the young men do not practice with their bows but wasting their time with the new game).The king of England Edward III for the first time called the game “ball-foot”, “foot-ball”.

XIV-XIX centuries – Two types of the ball game were competing - the first one, where the ball was kicked (like in modern football) and the second one, where the ball was carried mainly by hands (like in modern rugby). The game becomes very popular in Britain and there is a need to create football codes.

1823 – William Webb Ellis, a pupil at rugby school, first took the ball in his arms and ran with it creating the distinctive feature of the rugby game.

1855 - In Sheffield was found the first football club in the world with its own code of football (Sheffield rules).

1862 – The master at Uppingham school, John Thring issues 10 rules (known also as Uppingham rules – number of players, size of the field etc.)

26 October 1863 - At the Freemason’s Tavern, representatives of several football clubs in the London Metropolitan area met for the inaugural meeting of The Football Association (FA). The aim of the Association was to establish a single unifying code and regulate the playing of the game among its members in the entire country.

1866 – The offside rule is has been issued which limits how far forward the attacking player may be when involved in play. Simply put, a player cannot gain an advantage by waiting for the ball near the opposing goal with fewer than three opponents between him and the goal.

1870 – A new rule amendment is issued : pushing the players in the back is forbidden.

1871 – continuance of the game is defined: matches should be played in two halves of 45 minutes. The distance between the goal-posts is defined to be 7,32 m.

1872 - A corner kick was introduced as a method of restarting play in a game. It was first issued in Sheffield under the Sheffield Rules in 1867 ( was adopted by the Football Association) in 1872. A corner kick is awarded to the attacking team when the ball leaves the field by crossing the goal line without a goal having been scored, having been last touched by a defending player including the goalkeeper.

by Cherie Pugh

Cherie Pugh discovered the true story of the Nassau pirates when sailing through the Caribbean on a traditional wooden ship. She found the court records of their trials in London, and spent years researching and writing her pirate novel “Mary Read – Sailor, Soldier, Pirate”.

The ultimate pirate yarn is now available as an ebook or paperback from www.womanpirate.com

At its height, the Brethren of the Sea was a loose organisation of thousands of pirates, in companies of hundreds of men, in large fleets of ships. And the corrupt governors of the New World colonies were only too happy to trade with the pirates, instead of buying expensive goods imported from Europe.

[For more information on the pirate life, see my article

“The Real Pirates of the Caribbean”]

Then English King George lost patience with his Navy’s inability to catch the pirates, mostly because the commanders were too busy making their fortunes by convoying merchantmen for up to a quarter of the cargo. The King offered a Pardon, which halved the pirate numbers, most of them happy to return home from a long exile in fear of the noose. He began the radical step of paying high-ranking government employees a salary large enough to save them from the necessity of making money from corruption – up until then common practice. He also increased the powers of the Governors to hang whole crews of pirates, instead of just captains and quartermasters. This was justified by a vicious smear campaign that insisted that the pirates were all like Blackbeard- bloodthirsty psychopaths, half-mad from the pox. In fact, Blackbeard and his crew were based on Saint Thomas, and then the American mainland, and were not welcome in Nassau.

[For more information on Nassau, see my article

“Nassau – Pirate Haven in the Caribbean]

John Haman designed and built the pirate ships at Harbour Island in the Bahamas, and he based his designs on the sloops of the Malacca pirates, ‘fast to attack, faster to run’, which were themselves based on the Arab dhow. Shallow draughted and agile, the pirate sloops were much more suited to sailing the treacherous reefs and shallows of the Caribbean. Their fleets of small, quick sloops and schooners, all with the new bird-wing sails and longer prows, glided across the water under the lightest of breezes. Despite, or because of, their smaller size, they easily outran, out-sailed and out-fought the clumsy, square-rigged, massive Navy ships. The Dutch had provided an effective defense against Spanish invasion using small, lightly-armed fishing boats against huge Spanish galleons, and these lessons were not lost on the pirates. Thousands of them flourished in the Caribbean by 1715, in companies of hundreds of men, in fleets of fast ships.

King George also sent Captain Woodes Rogers to take Nassau back from the pirates. During Queen Anne’s War, Rogers had captured enough Spanish gold to finance England’s entire campaign against French domination. When he sailed his fleet into Nassau, Captain Vane met him with fireships, and forced him out again. Yet that night, Vane’s supporters melted away from him. Given their love of freedom, and Vane’s reputation for arrogance, they chose to live as Englishmen, in an English colony, with a Governor, rather than as the subjects of a pirate King. When the Governor sailed in again the next morning, Vane only stayed long enough to fire a volley at him, and then fled through the impossibly narrow eastern channel. Anne Bonny, masquerading as a man, sailed with him.

[For more information on pirate women, see my article

“Mary Read and Anne Bonny - Pirate Women of the Caribbean”]

Governor Woodes Rogers was an ambitious Puritan, with little time for women, and none for the Brethren. He didn’t understand the pirates’ readiness to surrender, and was sure they would mutiny against him. Rogers had brought colonists from Europe, but the rains brought fever, and he buried most of them within weeks. The Brethren would not farm, and when he insisted that they slave to erect forts against an expected Spanish attack, many returned to the sea. When the Spaniards finally attacked, the remaining Brethren easily beat them off, but Rogers still distrusted them.

With absolutely no support from his government, Rogers was soon deeply in debt, and forced, with ruined health and reputation, to return to England to beg for help, where his creditors had him arrested for debt. He returned to Nassau eventually, and with the rovers gone, finally succeeded in governing Nassau.

When the Naval commanders based in the colonies appealed to the local Governors for money to equip small fleets of sloops, they were finally able to challenge the pirates. When Rogers sailed into Nassau, he had sloops with him, though they did not dare follow Vane through the narrow eastern channel out of Nassau harbour. Yet Blackbeard and Stede Bonnet were both captured by naval sloops that trapped them in the shallow mudflats of rivers on the American Main, and blasted them to pieces. Bonnet’s crew was hung en masse, before they could die of their wounds. Jack Rackam was also finally captured by a Jamaican Navy sloop, though the wild women in his crew almost fought off their attackers single handed.

The Caribbean pirates committed a great deal of theft, and very little murder, and were hunted down and exterminated by a government that had abandoned them to crime in the first place. That the English government justified this slaughter by smearing their reputations for centuries is an injustice that must now be remedied. The truth is, the Caribbean pirates were brilliant sailors, made desperate by their own rulers. They united under ethical government, and lived consistently by fair rules, which is more than can be said for their government that trained them until they were among the best sailors in the world. The British government, in its contempt for the sailors that made it a great nation, created the pirates of the Caribbean. When they brought world trade to a halt, the pirates were then destroyed by the British government, with exactly the same contempt.

The ultimate pirate yarn is now available as an ebook or paperback from www.womanpirate.com

In the Bible (Isaiah 34:1-6), In His Wrath against Nations and on His Judgment on the Nations, the Lord God Love:

1) He is angry with all nations

2) His wrath is upon the armies of all nations

3) He will totally destroy the armies of all nations

4) He will give the armies of all nations over to slaughter.

The Lord God Love says:

1) The slain of all nations will be thrown out.

2) The dead bodies of all nations will send up a stench.

3) The mountains will be soaked with the blood of all nations.

4) The stars of the heavens will be dissolved.

5) The sky rolled up like a scroll.

6) The starry host will fall like withered leaves from the vine.

7) The starry host will fall like shriveled figs from the fig tree.

My sword has drunk its fill in the heavens.

9) My sword descends in judgment on Edom.

In the Quran, Allah said: O mankind!  We have created you male and female from Adam and Eve, and Allah has made you nations and tribes that you may know one another. Lo! The noblest of you in the Hereafter, (in the sight of Allah; on the Day of Judgment, (is the best in conduct) in the life of the world.

Lo! Allah is Knower of your status and lineage, He is the Aware of your works and standing in His sight; Aware, of your inner thoughts.

In addition, Allah has no sword, He does not need a sword; He can do anything and everything whatever, wherever and whenever He wants without the need of a sword.

================================

O Nations, Come near, to hear; and Listen in the Bible (1)

Isaiah 34:1-6

New International Version

1 Come near, you nations, and listen; pay attention, you peoples!  Let the earth hear, and all that is in it, the world, and all that comes out of it!

2 The LORD is angry with all nations; his wrath is upon all their armies. He will totally destroy them, he will give them over to slaughter.

3 Their slain will be thrown out, their dead bodies will send up a stench; the mountains will be soaked with their blood.

4 All the stars of the heavens will be dissolved and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall like withered leaves from the vine, like shriveled figs from the fig tree.

5 My sword has drunk its fill in the heavens; see, it descends in judgment on Edom, the people I have totally destroyed.

New American Standard Bible

1Draw near, O nations, to hear; and listen, O peoples! Let the earth and all it contains hear, and the world and all that springs from it.

2For the LORD’S indignation is against all the nations, And His wrath against all their armies; He has utterly destroyed them, He has given them over to slaughter.

3So their slain will be thrown out, And their corpses will give off their stench, And the mountains will be drenched with their blood.

4And all the host of heaven will wear away, And the sky will be rolled up like a scroll; All their hosts will also wither away As a leaf withers from the vine, Or as one withers from the fig tree.

5For My sword is satiated in heaven, Behold it shall descend for judgment upon Edom And upon the people whom I have devoted to destruction.

English Standard Version

1Draw near, O nations, to hear, and give attention, O peoples! Let the earth hear, and all that fills it; the world, and all that comes from it.

2For the LORD is enraged against all the nations, and furious against all their host; he has devoted them to destruction, has given them over for slaughter.

3Their slain shall be cast out, and the stench of their corpses shall rise; the mountains shall flow with their blood.

4 All the host of heaven shall rot away, and the skies roll up like a scroll. All their host shall fall, as leaves fall from the vine, like leaves falling from the fig tree.

5For my sword has drunk its fill in the heavens; behold, it descends for judgment upon Edom, upon the people I have devoted to destruction.

King James Version

1Come near, ye nations, to hear; and hearken, ye people: let the earth hear, and all that is therein; the world, and all things that come forth of it.

2For the indignation of the LORD is upon all nations, and his fury upon all their armies: he hath utterly destroyed them, he hath delivered them to the slaughter.

3Their slain also shall be cast out, and their stink shall come up out of their carcases, and the mountains shall be melted with their blood.

4And all the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll: and all their host shall fall down, as the leaf falleth off from the vine, and as a falling fig from the fig tree.

5For my sword shall be bathed in heaven: behold, it shall come down upon Idumea, and upon the people of my curse, to judgment.

================================

O Nations, Come near, to hear; and Listen in the Quran (1)

Verse 49:13

QARIB:

People, we have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes that you might know one another. the noblest of you before Allah is the most righteous of you. Allah is the knower, the aware.

SHAKIR:

O you men! surely we have created you of a male and a female, and made you tribes and families that you may know each other; surely the most honorable of you with Allah is the one among you most careful (of his duty); surely Allah is knowing, aware

PICKTHAL:

O mankind! lo! we have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. lo! the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. lo! Allah is knower, aware.

YUSUFALI:

O mankind! we created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. and Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things(.

The meaning of the verse:

It is said that this verse was revealed about Bilal, the muezzin of the Prophet.

The muezzin is the one who calls to prayers.

The call to prayer occurs five times a day.

Bilal was a black man; his faith was very strong and the Prophet Mohammad liked him very much and gave him the opportunity and the honor to be the muezzin of the Prophet.

When Bilal gave the call to prayer in Mecca after its conquest, a group of men said: “Did Allah and His Messenger not find anyone to call to prayer except this raven”.

In response, Allah said: (O mankind!  We have created you male and female) from Adam and Eve, (and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one another. Lo! The noblest of you) in the Hereafter, (in the sight of Allah) on the Day of Judgment, (is the best in conduct) in the life of the world; which in this case is Bilal.

Lo! Allah is Knower of your status and lineage, He is the Aware of your works and standing in His sight; Aware, of your inner thoughts.

This was the message that the Quran wants the mankind and the nation to know and to hear.

This verse was the Key-stone that banned racism, color discrimination and any other form of discrimination.

================================

Back to my question to the smart and interested reader:

Is the Quran quoted from the Bible?

Genetic engineering is not only for plants or animals.
Rational steering is required also for cultural evolution.

A. “Virtual reality and the 21st century world economy collapse”:

The 21st century world economy collapse is a collapse of a culture, of the 20th century technology culture, of its values and attitudes and ethics and morals. The world’s population is still (March 2009) clinging desperately to the collapsed concepts and expectations and makes a huge painful effort to revive the collapsed culture, instead of to steadfastly modify it. It is sadly and exasperatingly obvious that the economy collapsed due to adherance to absurd virtual reality concepts and expectations, and that the only hope to survive and overcome the collapse is to understand its nature and to plan, and embark on, a course to a new, science-based, more rational, virtual reality culture.

B. Common human culture cannot be enforced?

http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/120/122.page#1625

“What Dov Henis writes I tend to disagree. Common human culture can not be enforced. Culture is like evolution. It happens over spans of time by selection. The process is slow. It is by nature assimilative. We tend to gloss over differences and drive roughshod. This is a mistake. Culture is popular knowledge assimilation. You try to speed up the process and the elastic snaps. Cultures wherever are to be respected and knowledge reverse engineered to appreciate the foundations of the cultures”, writes Sharbani Ranjan Kundu.

C. Survival mandates rational steering of some human cultural evolutions

What Sharbani writes I tend to disagree. Nowadays human culture can be “enforced”, steered. Until few hundreds of years ago specific human cultural phenotypes used to evolve over lengths of time by “natural selection”, which, BTW, is also “enforced” - by circumstances and environments. But in recent human history “selection” has been more and more “enforced” by some on other human cultural phenotypes, like in post WWII Japan and Germany.

Throughout life’s evolution “culture” used to evolve over spans of time in response to “enforcement” by a variety of factors including circumstances, invading genes or other organisms, or invading different cultural phenotypes. However, in recent human history humans have been playing god more and more, interfering with natural “natural selection”, accelerating cultural evolutions of many organisms, including humans’.

If you do not speed up some “enforced” evolutionary processes, the elastic snaps. You allow and promote evolution of destructive catastrophes. Wise and prudent cultural phenotypes would elect and promote rational self re-education and re-orientation.

However, human cultural phenotypes, whatever and wherever they are, that threaten the genotypic evolution of welfaring humanity, should neither be “respected” nor “understood”. The extent of their factual and potential threat should be assessed rationally and those cultures should be “engineered” to evolve without a threat to other human cultural phenotypes or to international welfare.

Suggesting,

Dov Henis
(Comments From The 22nd Century)
EVOLUTION Beyond Darwin 200
http://www.physforum.com/index.php?showtopic=14988&st=405&#entry396201
http://www.the-scientist.com/community/posts/list/100/122.page#1407

Negative Air Pressure in industrial manufacturing facilities can create problems such as:

- Exhaust fans losing performance, as the building pressure becomes negative.

- Pilot light outages and exhaust system failure on natural draft gas equipment.

- Cold air drafts and infiltration of dirt and contamination from outside.

- Difficulty opening or closing exterior doors.

Nausea and headaches among personnel due to inadequate ventilation. In temperate climates or during mild weather, moderate amounts of make-up air can be supplied by simply opening windows or overhead doors. However, this is usually not the case in industrial and commercial facilities. Forced ventilation Make-up air is required.

Direct Gas-Fired Make-up Air Units supply tempered and filtered air to the indoor environment. In summer, a direct-fired unit may be used as an air handler, with the heater disabled. By adding a DX or evaporative cooling section to the unit, it may be used to supply conditioned air year round.

Make-Up Air Applications:

There are three general applications for Make-Up Air Units:

- Direct Compensating Ventilation

- General Area Ventilation

- Door Heating

Direct Compensating Ventilation.

Conditioned Air is Delivered to the Immediate Vicinity of Exhaust. This is the case for welding fume extractors, stovetop exhaust hoods, paint booths, or similar applications.

General Area Ventilation.
 
Conditioned Air Blankets Entire Area of Building to Compensate for Many Exhausts. Introduced in Cleanest Part of Building - Flows to Negative Pressure Areas - Picks up Dust, Vapors, and Odors en route.

Door Heaters

Heated Air is introduced at open doors to warm incoming air or compensate for loss. Heater may also be used as part of an “air door” system.

Typical Industrial Uses:

* Plating Tanks

* Paint Spray Booths

* Welding Operations

* Chemical Exhaust

* Degreasing

* Factory Ventilation

* Plastic Molding

* Foundry Works

* Grinding & Buffing Operations

Typical Commercial Uses:

* Warehouses

* Kitchens

* Entryways

* Gymnasiums

* Pools

* Exposition Buildings

* Garages

Make-Up Air Volume Requirements:

The recommended method for calculating Make-up Air Volume is to determine the total CFM capacity of exhaust fans, blowers, stacks, etc. in the building and add 10%. This will create a positive pressure in the building.

When information is not available, the following estimates may be used to determine approximate requirements:

- Paint / Spray Booth: 100 to 200 CFM per sq. ft. of face opening.

- Oven Exhaust: One air change per minute.

- Fume Exhaust: Area of Pipe (in square feet) x velocity (3,000 feet/min average) = CFM.

- Roof Ventilator: same as Fume Exhaust.

- Canopy Hoods: 100 to 300 CFM per square foot of hood open area.
 
- Furnace Combustion Air: Minimum CFM = BTU/hr rating / 6,000.

- Drying, Baking, Curing Ovens: 100 CFM per square foot of booth cross section.

- Pickling or Cleaning Tanks: 150 CFM per square foot of door opening or 200 CFM per square foot of hood face opening.

A Direct Gas-Fired Air Heating System may be used in an industrial or commercial application for any or all of the following purposes:

. Make-Up Air Heating - Air is introduced to a building to replace air being exhausted.
. Space Heating - A unit provides primary or supplementary heating to a building space.
. Space Pressure Control - Building or Room Pressurization is held within a range.

Additional information can be found at the Canada Blower company web site http://canadablower.com/ahu/index.html.

Susan Terlitski
Air Handling Units Engineer
Canada Blower
http://canadablower.com/hvac/index.html
http://canadablower.com/oem/index.html

The Moon is mentioned in the Noble Quran 25 times

In the Bible, Job 25:5 says that the moon does not shine and the stars are not pure in God’s eyes.

In the Quran, Verse 39:5 says that Allah is wrapping (in a ball like) the night about the day and wrapping (in a ball like) the day about the night.

————————-

Job 25:5 in eight different versions of the Bible:

New International Version

5 If even the moon is not bright and the stars are not pure in his eyes,

New American Standard Bible

5″If even the moon has no brightness and the stars are not pure in His sight,

English Standard Version

5Behold, even the moon is not bright, and the stars are not pure in his eyes;

King James Version

5Behold even to the moon, and it shineth not; yea, the stars are not pure in his sight.

The Message

Why, even the moon has its flaws, even the stars aren’t perfect in God’s eyes,

Darby Translation

5Lo, even the moon is not bright; and the stars are not pure in his sight:

Holman Christian Standard Bible

5 If even the moon does not shine and the stars are not pure in His sight,

Young’s Literal Translation

5Lo — unto the moon, and it shineth not, And stars have not been pure in His eyes.

————————-

Chapter 39: AZ-ZUMAR (THE TROOPS)

Verse 39:5 of the Noble Quran in four different translations:

QARIB: he created the heavens and the earth in truth, wrapping the night about the day and wrapping the day about the night, he has subjected the sun and the moon each to run for a stated term. is he not the almighty, the forgiving?

SHAKIR: he has created the heavens and the earth with the truth; he makes the night cover the day and makes the day overtake the night, and he has made the sun and the moon subservient; each one runs on to an assigned term; now surely he is the mighty, the great forgiver

PICKTHAL: he hath created the heavens and the earth with truth. he maketh night to succeed day, and he maketh day to succeed night, and he constraineth the sun and the moon to give service, each running on for an appointed term. is not he the mighty, the forgiver?

YUSUFALI: he created the heavens and the earth in true (proportions): he makes the night overlap the day, and the day overlap the night: he has subjected the sun and the moon (to his law): each one follows a course for a time appointed. is not he the exalted in power - he who forgives again and again?

Allah created the heavens and the earth with the truth not in vain.  He turns the night into day, so that it grows, and turns the day into night, so that it grows,

And He makes the sun and moon subservient to the Children of Adam, (each) i.e. the sun and the moon, the day and night (running on for an appointed term) for an appointed time until the Day of Resurrection.

Verily it is He Who is the Mighty, Whose way always prevails, Requites of His enemies, the ever Forgiving of His friends.

In other words, Is not He the Mighty, He Who does this is the Mighty in retribution against those who disbelieve in Him, (the Forgiver) of those who believe in Him?

Herein there is an important point about the deficiency in translating the Arabic verb “Yokaw-wer”; It is translating to overlap, wrap or cover. So, the translations come up as:

“Allah is wrapping (overlapping or covering) the night about the day and wrapping the day about the night”.

These translations are right but they ignore another important meaning of the Arabic verb “Yokaw-wer” that is “in a ball like”

That is why, the exact translations should be:

“In a ball like, Allah is wrapping (overlapping or covering) the night about the day and wrapping the day about the night.”

This is a great scientific meaning because if we look at the earth from the space we see that it is a ball like; and half of it is a day and the other half is a night.

This indicates that the Quran is the first book on the earth which says that the earth is a ball like.

============

Back to my question for the smart reader:

Is the Quran quoted from the Bible?

The most common method of using solar energy is to store them in photovoltaic cells. This method was first used in U.S. space satellites in 1950s. The cells are made from silicon. When sunlight enters the cells, it causes the electrons to move about. The electrons then move towards the front side of the solar panels. This causes an imbalance of the electrons between the front and back side of the panels. On joining the two surfaces, a conductor is formed, just like a wire, and current begins to flow. The individual solar cells are arranged together in a PV module and the modules are grouped together to form an array. This current is used to charge cells and this energy is used to light lamps, tube lights and also to drive cars now. The current can also be used to run appliances.

Another method of using solar energy is to direct the solar rays to a convergence point using a curved reflector and then make a current flowing system like a photo cell and store energy. This method is now used in India and U.S.

Solar energy is available all around the world and is a free energy source with little or no pollution contribution. Its conversion to usable forms of energy has become possible in recent years and more and more advanced and optimized methods are available to us to harness its full potential.

The sun may rescue us all in the energy crisis now we are facing.

If you are interested in solar energy, I advise you to visit this website to learn more.This site contain information about how to make solar panel and also wind generators at home.

http://www.GreenEnergy4Home.com

By: Dmitriy Plotnikov, physicist

Simon Plotnikov, Rutgers University

9 Smith Court

Hillsborough, NJ 08844

908 240 0181

idsomal@patmedia.net

“Don’t believe your eyes, for the whole world is an illusion.” – Unknown

As a theoretical physicist, I have always studied the fundamental forces of nature. While my son was taking general chemistry in college, his freshman year, I took a glance at the text book which he was using. In there was described most of what we learn in high school and college regarding general chemistry. When I flipped through to sections regarding ionic bonding I decided to delve further. What was written in the book and what is accepted in Chemistry today is that ionic bonds are the result of Coulomb’s force between opposing charges. If you take a simple salt, NaCl, and calculate the bonding force using Coulomb’s law:

 =

And then proceed to do the same thing for another simple salt, KCl, you will find that values should be quite similar; the only real difference is a change in the radius you use by mere nanometers. However, the actual bonding force is much different then what you calculate using this simple formula. I asked myself, are salts held together by Coulomb’s potential? And what do we even mean by Coulomb’s force? Does it even exist? Try using Coulomb’s logic to explain why in nature you will never find monatomic hydrogen. If you follow logic, the non-existantance of monatomic hydrogen in nature is a complete contradiction of Coulomb’s law. What led me to study this aspect of physics and chemistry was the question what interaction, if any, exists between opposing charges, and can it be described as a problem of two states? The pursuit for an answer to this question gave me great pleasure, but lead to many new questions, especially regarding the state of general chemistry today. All of general chemistry today is built on the concept of the electromagnetic field, but one has to come to terms and realize no such fields exist. All natural forces are the result of interactions, and the sum and combination of various interactions. With this paper I hope to open the minds of chemists and physicists specifically regarding their understanding of chemical bonding and “electromagnetic interaction”.

Elementary Dipole

We start off by examining a closed system where you have two particles, a proton and an electron, as a quantum system because we are only looking at the interaction of the two charges.

The coordinate of the one of the particles will be X1 and the coordinate of the second particle will be X2, the point  will lie in between the points X1 and X2 and with the distance of (X1 X2) /2. The energy of point   will be determined by the combination of the various amplitudes of probability of charges based on which particle is occupying point X1 and X2. Take in account that the amplitude of probability Y of will have two combinations: ÷ - ñ or ÷- ñ. We will take into consideration that the amplitude of probability Y will have two base states, C1 and C2, where:

C1 - is the amplitude of probability that the proton will occupy point X1 and the electron will occupy point X2.

C2 - is the amplitude of probability that the electron will occupy point X1 and the proton will occupy point X2.

The overall amplitude of probability of having either combination can be determined as the sum of your base states:

Y  = ÷ - ñ  ÷- ñ  =  C1 C2

To determine the energy of point X’ the Hamiltonian system of equations must be used.

The solution of the system of differential equations is the function Cn:

After replacing C1 and C2 with the function Cn the following system of equations is constructed and solved:

After factoring out   from both sides of the equation and dividing by it we get a new set of equations:

The coefficient will be described by the equation:

After substituting with the equation  we get the system of equations:

Suppose

From the equations written above, we can solve for the value of energy

The value for the energy

=

After taking the determinant of the substituted matrix:

                                                          = 0

We get the value of energy for

   =

After solving our system of equations we can deduce that point  will have two possible energy states; E1 and E2. The amplitude of probability of having either energy state at  can be described as the sum of the two individual amplitudes of E1 and E2:

Y(E1, E2) = Y1(E1) Y2(E2)

We presume that in a closed system of two charges, at point , two different levels of energy can occur.

Y(E1, E2)=

We assume that in the above equation the coefficients  and  are equal to each other.

Y(E1, E2)=

Y(E1, E2)=2×

The amplitude of probability that point  will have the energy E1 or E2 can be described using the harmonic function that is dependent on time. Knowing this, we can see that this process it is constant and continuous in time. All these mathematical conclusions are necessary to understand how two opposite charges in space, can form in any point in space two different levels of energy E1 or E2. Knowing this we can move toward our second discussion, which in my eyes is more interesting and more intriguing.

The appearance of elementary exchange

Take in consideration a closed system with four charges, two positive and two negative. From the previous discussion, we assume that  and will have two different levels of energy associated with each point. But in a closed system you cannot have two systems with equal levels of energy. This means that  has energy E1 and  will have energy E2. Assuming that E1 > E2.

C1, which is the amplitude if probability that system 1 has energy E1

C2, which is the amplitude of probability that system 2 has energy E2

System 1 streams toward having a more energetically favorable condition, it does so by lowering its level of energy. By this reasoning, system 1 releases energy A that is received by system 2, which must in turn raise its energy level.

An amplitude of probability,÷1>, exists that system 1 will release energy A and achieve the energy E2.

Similarly, an amplitude of probability, ÷2>, will occur where system 2 will accept energy A from system 1 and achieve energy level E1.

This process can go in the reverse direction. The overall amplitude of this process can be written as:

Y = ÷1ñ ÷2ñ .

This interaction is very similar to other quantum interactions such as chemical, nuclear, and gravitational.

Based on the previously discussed material and equations the overall amplitude of probability can be described using the following equation.

Y(E1, E2)=2× = 2×

The exchange of energy is constant in time.

Now it becomes apparent as to why a force of attraction exists between two charges.

An interesting side note, two elementary charges, a proton and an electron, will not attract or repel each other at all. Elementary attraction can only occur in a system with four charges, two positive and two negative. Our old friend Coulomb was not correct. Time moves forward and we must as well.

The appearance of continuous elementary exchange

The system of equations shows that ÷1ñ will have energy E1 and ÷2ñ will have energy E2.

Where:  

To find a general solution for the system of equations, we will combine both equations together.

Now we will take the difference of the two equations.

Continuing our mathematical analysis:

If b = 0,

If a = 0,

After doing some more mathematical operations we will get two final equations as solutions.

All these equations will show the continuous rising and dropping of energy at  and .

The overall amplitude of probability of finding point  in one of the possible energy states can be described by the equation:

Y =

In a system with two dipoles there is a continuous exchange of elementary portions of energy. This occurs because the two points  and  have different levels of energy. The change over from one energy state to the other occurs by a transmission of an elementary portion of energy A which the other dipole accepts thereby raising its energy state. This continuous exchange of energy throughout time is what gives us a force of attraction between charges.

The appearance of elementary charge spin

Suppose in a closed system we have two dipoles. Dipole 1 will appear in point S which will have two different energy levels associated with it. Dipole 2 will appear in point K, also having two different energy levels. Pay attention to the fact that the negative charge in Dipole 1 will combine with the positive charge from Dipole 2 to create a new dipole, Dipole 3. Similarly the positive charge from Dipole 1 will come together with the negative charge of Dipole 2 to form Dipole 4. Dipole 3 will form in point V and will have two different energy levels associated with it while Dipole 4 will form in point T and will just as the others have two different energy levels associated with it.  We will pick out a base state of  that point S will have energy E1, base state  will assume that point T will have energy E2. Base state  will suppose that point K will have energy E1 associated with it. Lastly, base state  will assume that point V will have energy E2 associated with it.

E1 > E2

The amplitude of probability  that point S will lower its energy level toward the direction of point V or point T will be:

 =          

The amplitude of probability  that point T will accept energy given off from point S or K and simultaneously raise its energy level will be:

 =          

The amplitude of probability  that point K will lower its energy level toward the direction of point V or point T will be:

 =          

The amplitude of probability  that point V will accept energy given off from point S or K and at the same time raise its energy level will be:

 =      

From this, we construct a system of four equations:

In this system, we assume that E1 = E3, while E2 = E4

Calculating the energy levels:

From this system of equations which we put into a matrix, we get this determinant. 

det = 0

After the solving for the determinant, we get two different levels of energy;

E1, 3 =   2 A                                                                                              E2, 4 =    2 A

After doing these calculations, we can obtain the equation for elementary charge spin.

Where B, is a complex number that is dependent on R, R is the distance between points S, K, T, and V.

There are only 2 directions in which energy is released from points 1 and 3; clockwise or counter clockwise. The clockwise direction will create a spin of up, while the counter clockwise direction will create a down spin. The description of the exchange of energies between four charges has brought us to the problem of two states. Energy spin up, and energy spin down.

The exchange of energy between two opposing charge spin systems in a Cartesian plane.

In a closed Cartesian system, we have two opposing charge spin systems. The base state  will assume that system 1 will have energy level , while base state  will assume that system 2 will have energy level . 

E1 > E2

R - Radius vector

After our mathematical calculation we obtain the function for the amplitude of probabilities dependent on our radius vector R.

If a = 0, from our system of two equations we will just get one, where the amplitude of probability is solely dependent on x:

If R = 0,

From this equation, we can determine in what coordinate x, the amplitude of probability for the exchange of energy drops to zero.

This means at this particular point, the exchange of charge spin energy falls to zero.

The amplitude of probability decreases the amplitude of oscillations as a decreasing oscillating function. We obtain points, where the amplitude of probability for the exchange of energy will equal 0, and vice versa, we obtain points for an amplitude of probability where the exchange of energy will be maximum. This explains the distribution of electrons by their orbits/orbitals within the atomic structure. This distribution of charges reminds us greatly of gravitational interactions. However, in gravitational spin interaction differing energy levels give us elementary particle spin. (See previous paper, Physical Gravitational Interaction as a Two State Problem.)

In our present case, the interaction is caused by charge.     

Emergence of Spin Levels

Equation for Spin level

As was seen in the previous discussions, two dipoles come together to form four points in space with two different levels of energy, E1 and E2. Differing direction for the exchange of energy, clockwise or counter clockwise, can be thought as spin and spin down, and the description of this mechanism again turns into a problem of two states.

E1 > E2

Through the method of trial and error, we can derive the equation for determining differing levels of spin energy:

DE = 4n  L ½e½

This figure shows four charges forming the first level spin energy. First level spin energy is described by the equation:

DE1 = 4  L ½e½

Where n is energy level. 

In the first energy level,

n = 1

L- is a constant

e - is the magnitude of charge.

The second level of spin energy where

n = 2,

Can be described by the equation

DE2 = 16  L ½e½

As seen in a system with eight dipoles, a spin emerges with a second energy level with a spin up and a spin down.

In the previous two examples we examined a spin system where n = 1 and n = 2, it can be deduced from our logic that more spin systems with n =3, n = 4, and n = N exist. All these problems involving differing levels of the spin energy all boil down to the problem of two states with a spin up and a spin down, the difference in the levels between the two systems is just a difference in the magnitude of energy.

The problem with monatomic hydrogen

Let us now look at the atom of hydrogen. For some reason in nature only a molecule of diatomic

Hydrogen exists. A question should immediately emerge, why is there no atom of hydrogen? By logic stemming from classical coulomb’s force, there must be an attraction between a positively charged proton and a negatively charged electron creating an ideal system which must exist in great numbers in nature. However you will be hard-pressed to find any at all anywhere. The question being is why? This is the first question which should emerge, the second being; since a Coulomb’s force of attraction exists between a positively charged proton and a negatively charged electron, the electron must fall onto the proton. However that is never observed. Since monatomic hydrogen is never encountered in nature, it can be said that one electron behaves as if it never even sees one proton in such a system. Another question now emerges, is there any Coulomb’s force of attraction between positive and negative charges. If there is some force of attraction, it cannot be Coulomb’s force. Let us now examine the explanation of physicists and chemists regarding Coulomb’s force. “Inside an atom, the electron is pulled toward the nucleus due to Coulomb’s force because the sign of their charges is different; however this attraction only works up to a certain distance because immediately forces of atomic repulsion step in to push the electron off.” This is too funny, is this for real? But ask yourselves this question, what is the force of atomic repulsion inside of an atom. Not one chemist or physicist will give you a concrete answer. The answer is simple; the force of atomic repulsion doesn’t exist. This was thought up to save our precious Coulomb’s Law. However we are in the business of physics, not preserving history. You may challenge me by saying that electrons due indeed push off from the nucleus, some force appears to be repelling them off. I cannot whole heartedly disagree because it does indeed appear that electrons are pushed off but simply try to explain these interactions without using Coulomb’s law. You may ask yourselves how? The answer is quite simple.

Take your monatomic hydrogen, which cannot be found in nature, and call it simply a proton and an electron, an interaction cannot physically exist because your two particles are naturedly different. Interactions can only exist between like particles or like systems, or else they will not work. By this logic, your monatomic hydrogen does not exist.

Take one of our closed system in which you may find one dipole containing a proton and an electron, and now bring into this system a second dipole with an electron and a proton.

Dipole 1 will now create a level of energy  at point , Dipole 2 will now create a different energy level  at point , because  and  naturally cannot be the same and because our system is closed, an amplitude of probability will emerge that point  will have energy  and point  will have a different energy , if  >  then point  will try to lower its energy level in the direction of , and  will in turn raise its energy level. This will create an elementary exchange between points  and . This is why you will never find monatomic hydrogen in nature, only molecular hydrogen exists.

Now pay attention to the fact that dipole 1 and dipole 2 create two more dipoles 3 and 4 see figure 3F, which will also create differences in energy levels and which will also begin to exchange energy between them. The bonding energy between the two parts of a hydrogen molecule can be described using the equation:

DEH2 = DE1 DE2 = (E1 - E2) (E1 - E2) = 2(E1 - E2)

Where DEH2 is the bonding energy for a molecule of hydrogen.

If you have been paying attention to this discussion, then you would have realized that a spin could have occurred. I could argue that in closed system a spin cannot form because there is no counter spin with which is exchange energy. There must be two for spin to emerge, our system is closed. However if you put inside our system two more dipoles, then an amplitude of probability will occur that an exchange of energy will take place between our first group of dipoles and our second group. You may find yourself asking another question, why does bonding energy DEH2 not simply take point  and  and crunch them together. The answer I have already given you in my previous equations, the answer lies in the fact that the amplitude of probability of an exchange of energy is dependent on the radius vector R between the points  and  as a harmonic function.

 Y  ~  

From this equation it can be seen that at different coordinates R the amplitude of probability for an exchange of energy to occur falls to zero, and vice versa there is a coordinate R where the amplitude of probability for an exchange of energy to occur is high. This is why if you try to bring the two dipoles closer together then they will return to their original coordinates because the amplitude of probability at those closer points falls to zero.

The energy of boding is equal to the energy of repulsion at the exact same time. From this we can figure that the effective radius of a molecule of hydrogen

RH = 2 *10-9 m 

References

Richard Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, Mathew Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading Massachusetts, Palo Alto,  London, 1963

Virgilio Acosta, Clyde L. Cowan, B.J. Graham, Essentials of Modern Physics, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, New York, Evanston, San Francisco, London, 1981

P. W. Atkins, J. A. Beran, General Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Scientific American Books, New York, 1990

Ronald J. Tallarida, Pocket Book of Integrals and Mathematical Formulas, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo, 1992

A.A. Petrov,  H. B. Balyon, A. T. Troshinko, General Organic Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Higher Education, Moscow, 1981

L. A . Sena, Single Physical Units and their Measurements, General Department for Physical Mathematical Literature, Moscow, 1988

John Gribbin, In Search of Schrodinger’s Cat, Bantam Books, New York, Toronto, London, Sydney, Auckland, 1984

Rolf. E. Hummel, Electronic Properties of Materials, 2nd Edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1985

Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, Gravitation, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, London 2000

Ben G. Streetman, Solid State Electronic Devices, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1995

K.D. Stroyan, Calculus using Mathematica, Academic Press, Inc., Boston, San Diego, New York, L